Section 1: When was the Book of Jonah Composed
“Let us start by considering the likely date of Jonah’s composition. We know it is attributed to Jonah the son of [ben] Amitai. A prophet of this name is mentioned in Kings II 14:25, during the reign of Jeroboam II in the 8th century BCE. Well, Peter’le what can you tell me about this epoch?”
“The very same Biblical Passage advises that Jonah predicted the attainment of this mighty King, who ‘restored the boundaries of Israel from Lebo-Hamat [in the North] to the Seas of Araba [in the South]’. This would have been the result of wars with Aram-Damascus – the traditional Northern enemy – and probably an expansion leading to dominion over Moab and Edom in the South. The Kingdom of Judah might have become a vassal; but there is no archaeological evidence to this effect.”
“Be this as it may: Jeroboam II would appear to have been a mighty King,” observed Theophil.
“I believe he was. Assyria was in decline during this period, due mainly to internal strife. It became the major player in the entire Fertile Crescent (including Palestine) some fifty years later.”
“From what you tell me, Jonah ben Amitai was a prophet who predicted victories. There is no record of his having asked any people to repent. Well, were there any other prophets who did?”
“Isaiah did; but his ministry related mainly to the Kingdom of Judah. Hoshea called for repentance in the Northern Kingdom Israel. Another prophet, active in Israel during period – Amos – castigated the Northern Kingdom for its sinfulness and asked that they mend their ways. So, we have to accept that Jonah differs: he predicts doom to a gentile Kingdom but is not critical of the Hebrew population of this period. Moreover, why would any prophet of the epoch turn his attention to Assyria?”
“You have made your point,” approbated Theophil. “What do we know about Assyria of the 8th century BCE? And what do we know about Nineveh?”
“At that time, Assyria’s capital was Kahlu (Nimrud). Nineveh was an important administrative and religious centre, but its governor was an official, not a king. Nineveh was constituted capital only when Sennacherib came into full power in 705 BCE. During the period of Jeroboam’s reign, Nineveh was an important city but not a national centre of Assyria.”
“What do we know about its size and population?”
“It was a large city but its description, in Jonah, as ‘an exceeding great city of three days journey in extent’ is an exaggeration! So is the suggestion that its population was ‘more than one hundred thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their left hand’. The number of its inhabitants during that period would have been about forty thousand.”
“From what you relate, Peter’le, Jonah does not appear to be a tome written during the 8th century BCE. When was it composed?”
“The consensus among scholars it that it was written during the post exilic, Persian period, either in the 5th or the early 4th century BCE.”
“On what basis have they reached this conclusion?”
“The style of the book is late, post exilic, Hebrew. It also includes many words loaned from Persian and Aramaic. One gets the feeling that the anonymous author filled gaps in his Hebrew vocabulary by resorting to loan words. These may constitute Hapaxes but were, of course, understood by readers. The word yitashet [יתעשת][to mind] in chapter 1, illustrates the point. Its root is Aramaic; not Hebrew.”
“How about the word Kikayon?”
“Borrowed from Akadian, which was the Levant’s lingua franca during the 2nd millennium BCE. It was replaced by Aramaic after the collapse of the Bronze Age. During the 8th century BCE Aramaic was prominent. The fact that the author knew Akkadian, suggests that he was a scholar.”
“Are there any other clues supporting a 5th century authorship?”
“I can think of five: (i) by then Assyria had ceased to be a world power; (ii) the author’s familiarity with polytheistic religions and their believers, (iii) his nuanced conversation with the sailors, (iv) the author’s familiarity with nautical concepts, and (v) Jonah’s prayer.”
“Let us consider them one after the other, Peter’le.”
“Very well. First, during the 5th century BCE Assyria and Nineveh were no longer a political power. The Kingdom was defeated, and Nineveh was destroyed in 612 BCE. But its memory lingered although details respecting it were unclear. This explains its description in Jonah.”
“I agree,” said Theophil. “Well, turn to the next, second, point.”
“The author’s familiarity with polytheism is clear. He narrates that each sailor calls on his own divinity for help. Notably, he does not state expressly that all these deities are powerless. Jonah displays a very tolerant approach to alien creeds. Orthodox Judaism of the 5th century BCE would have sneered at them and at the sailors’ prayers. Moreover, when the sailors recognise Jehovah’s might, they make offerings and take vows to him. But there is no hint that they convert and abandon their own faith. And the author does not castigate them!”
“Point taken,” approbated Theophil. “Let us turn to the third.”
“Jonah, the sailors and the captain converse naturally. Such an approach was more common in the 5th century BCE than earlier on. It is also notable that the sailors’ initial reaction is to save Jonah. They throw him overboard only after their attempts to row back are thwarted by the storm.”
“This does not strike me as a strong clue. Jews had to mix with gentiles even during earlier periods. Still, the point is noteworthy, especially the positive depiction of the sailors.”
“The fourth argument, concerning the author’s familiarity with sea going vessels, is more directly in point. During the 8th century BCE – the glorious reign of Jeroboam II – sea- goings were controlled by the Phoenicians. Jaffa was a regular port of calling. At a first glance this supports composition during the 8th century BCE. On closer examination, though, it supports the later date. During the 8th century, a fugitive like Jonah might have proceeded to Tyre or Sidon. During the 5th century BCE, Jaffa was the natural place for embarking on a sea voyage and the author’s familiarity with concepts such as jettisoning strikes me as far more common during later than earlier periods.”
“Here, too, you can argue both ways. Seafaring and familiarity with problems arising during a sea voyage might have been just as familiar in the 8th as in the 5th century BCE.”
“I have to agree with you,” I muttered. “The last point, though, is telling. In his prayer from the belly of the fish, Jonah refers twice to ‘your holy temple’. This temple, though, was in Jerusalem: in the Davidian Kingdom. Notably, the prophet Amos, who was active in the Northern Kingdom in the 8th century BCE, was chased away and told to ‘escape’ to Juda and prophecy there; not in the Northern Kingdom. Jonah, who predicted Jeroboam’s victories, was most unlikely to refer to the Jerusalem temple. In contrast, any 5th century Jew would have regarded the second, rebuilt, shrine as essential to his faith.”
“This is an important clue,” agreed Theophi. “Further, the prayer’s style is a clear indication. It is composed almost entirely of lines and motifs taken from the Psalms. Psalms 18, 42, 69, 120 and 130 are directly in point. And the hymns known to us were chanted in the second temple during the 5th century BCE.”
“Some Psalms are attributed to king David, whose rein took place in the 10th century BCE. Still, in the form that has come down to us they were part of the second temple’s ritual,” I agreed. “So, we have clear supporting evidence.”
“Very well, then, Peter’le. You conclude that Jonah was composed in the 5th century BCE. This is slightly later than the date of Malachi. If Jonah were treated as falling within the Judges section of the Old Testament, it should have been placed at the very end of it. Instead, it is grouped together with another eleven books as one of the Minor Prophets. Does this make sense?”
“Not if you treat it analytically. But the Old Testament – as we know it today – was not sealed until about the 2nd century CE. Jonah was not discussed in the Jamina [Javneh] Synod of 90 CE. Its place amongst the Minor Prophets was established by then. As already mentioned, a scroll of these prophets, discovered in Qumran (the location of the Dead Seas Scrolls community), includes scraps of Jonah. Its inclusion amongst the Minor Prophets was thus secured prior to the 70 CE, when this sect was destroyed by the Romans.”
“This leads me to the last question we ought to raise: was Jonah composed prior to Job? Scholarly consensus is that this book too was written in the 5th or very early in the 4th century.”
“We cannot be certain, Maestro. Our records of this period are scanty. As you know, I believe that Job was composed by a Diaspora Jew. But even if Jonah and Job were composed in the same period, I am pretty certain that the author of Jonah was not familiar with Job.”
“Why, Peter’le?”
“Job deals with but one issue, namely theodicy, or in other words: why do the innocent suffer. This issue arises also in Jonah. If the ship had capsized, the harmless sailors would have perished together with the rebellious Jonah, just as Job’s innocent sons and daughters perish although he alone is put to the test. If the author of Jonah had been familiar with Job, this theodicy issue would have been either discussed or, in the very least, mentioned.”
“And it is not,” summed up Theophil. “This leads to an interesting question: why was the author of Job unfamiliar with Jonah and vice versa? You say they were virtually contemporaneous. Well, mon cher, Pierre?”
“They may have been composed in different places. Further, even if they were composed in the same locality the authors might have moved in separate circles. The low rate of literacy suggests neither was widely circulated at that time.”
“Well, you have made your point. Let us turn to the next, quite related question.”
Section 2: Where was the Book of Jonah Composed
“On this issue too scholars are divided,” I pointed out. “Many aver that Jonah was composed in Jerusalem. There is no doubt that, during the entire post exilic period (including the Persian period), Jerusalem was the centre of Judaism. Indeed, Diaspore Jews travelled to Jehud frequently, especially during the High Holidays. Nevertheless, I am convinced that Jonah was composed in the Diaspora.”
“But what do we know about the Jewish Diaspora of that period?”
“We are told in Kings I 20:34 that Ahab, who reigned the Northern Israeli Kingdom during the first half of the 9th century BCE, was granted ‘marketplaces’ in Damascus. Further, Jeremiah [41:5] mentions that people from Northern Provinces came to Jerusalem to express sympathy in 586 BCE [after its fall]. This indicates that a Diaspora was already in existence at that time.”
“Any other places?” asked Theophil.
“Esther (composed during the 5th century BCE) establishes the existence of a large Jewish population in many countries ruled by Persia. Jews are described in this book as a nation dispersed throughout the empire. This shows that important Jewish Diaspora communities existed at that time. Some of the largest were in Babylon and Susa.”
“How about Egypt, Peter’le? It is common knowledge that during the 5th century BCE the Persian Empire included Egypt.”
“Jewish settlements existed in Egypt and actually are even mentioned in Isaiah, who tells us that ‘five cities in the land of Egypt [shall] speak the language of Canaan, and swear to the Lord of hosts; one shall be called, The city of destruction.’ Am just quoting.”
“City of Destruction?” Theophil sounded bewildered.
“Modern scholarship suggests that this strange phrase is the result of a scribal error. The Hebrew text reads ‘Ir Haheres’, which does mean ‘city of destruction’. Scholars read it as ‘Ir Haĥeres’ which means ‘city of the sun’. This may actually refer to Elephantine (Yeb; near the very Southern border, currently Aswan ), where Diaspora Jews even founded a temple to God, who may be described as ‘sun’, bearing in mind the ‘Ra’ was the Egyptian sun-God.”
“But Peter’le, the passage you cite comes from the prophecies of Isiah the son of Amoz, who was active during the 8th century BCE.”
“True, Maestro. But Isiah was revised during the post exilic, Persian, period, which covers the 5th century BCE. The passage I cited was, I believe, inserted at that time.”
“Do you suggest, on this basis, that Jonah was composed in Elephantine?”
“This is only a hunch. The reference may be to On (Heliopolis) which had an Egyptian temple of the sun-God, Ra. This city, in the delta, was still in existence, though in decline, during the 5th BCE. And it had a Jewish settlement. Still, archaeological findings confirm that a Jewish settlement existed in Elephantine. And there is yet a further supporting clue: in his prayer from the belly of the fish, Jonah says: ‘the weeds were wrapped about my head.”
“Why is that relevant?”
“The Hebrew original refers to ‘suf’ [soof], which actually means ‘reeds’ and not ‘weeds’. Well, reeds are common on the shore of the Nile but not in the sea. And Elephantine was right on the Nile Shore.”
“And on the basis of these clues you are inclined to think that Jonah was composed there?”
“Let me emphasise again: this is a mere hunch. Still, Elephantine was not cut off. Travel down the Nile was common in those days.”
“Very well. And this takes us back to the main issue. Peter’le, why do you argue that Jonah was composed in a Diaspora settlement?”
“First, we have authentic negative information about Jerusalem. It will be recalled that it was sparsely populated and a backwater. Nehemiah tells us that priests escaped from it due to poverty.”
“All the same, the Temple in Jerusalem was the very centre of Judaism. And many of the priests officiating there were well trained scribes.”
“True, Maestro; but the city was desolate, with a population of just about 1,500. According to modern scholarship, the walls of the city were still in ruin; they were rebuilt only during the Hasmonaim period. Moreover, the orientation of the Temple Priesthood was narrow – separatist by nature.”
“Why did they adopt such a policy, Peter’le?”
“You will recall that the people of the Northern Kingdom, exiled by the Assyrian Empire, mixed with the local population and were ‘lost’ to Judaism. The policy of Jerusalem establishment – segregation – sought to safeguard against such an outcome. They wanted to ensure that Judaism would continue to exist and remain intact.”
“And Jonah?”
“The book’s outlook militated against it. It is far more cosmopolitan.”
“But isn’t it possible that some of these priests in Jerusalem took a similar view?”
“Wouldn’t their writings have been suppressed by the majority? Even if Jonah had been composed there, it would have been most unlikely to find its way into the Old Testament.”
“Again, you are jumping the gun, Peter’le: you deal with the message. This will be discussed later. At this point, let us sum up by saying that Jonah’s orientation is incompatible with the conventional outlook of the priesthood in Jerusalem. Do you have any other, separate arguments, that suggest a Diaspora composition?”
“A tentative one. The excellence of the Jewish Diaspora in Babylon, which included the population exiled by Nebuchadnezzar in 597 BCE (when King Jehoiachin surrendered) and 586 BCE (after the fall of Jerusalem). It included the intelligentsia. Giants, like the prophet Ezekiel, settled there.”
“Do you, then, aver that Jonah was composed there?” asked Theophil.
“Jonah’s author might, indeed, have lived there. If Jonah was composed in a place other than Jerusalem, Babylon would be the most likely venue. But, as already mentioned, my hunch is that the book was composed by a scholar from Elephantine.”
“But why not from Babylon?”
“The Babylon community’s outlook was similar the establishment’s in Jerusalem. A divergent view was more likely to be voiced elsewhere, for instance Elephantine. But, as already said, this is just a hunch. And Maestro: ought I to suppress a mere supposition?”
“Most certainly not. Hunches often lead to progress. Eons ago, one of your remote ancestors, who warmed himself by sitting in the vicinity of a fire lit by lightning, felt the impulse to use a burning branch to ignite by its use a small fire in his icy cold cave. I nudged him to proceed! This was one the first major steps taken by homo sapiens, eventually leading to the emergence of civilisations. On many occasions a hunch is meaningful. As long as you do not assert is as a valid and fully proved conclusion, you are entitled to voice it.”
“Thanks for this confirmation, Maestro. Let us then proceed to the gamut of my discourse: Jonah’s message.